Piltdown Hoax

In Piltdown, England during the year of 1912, an amateur archaeologist named Charles Dawson made a jaw dropping discovery. During the summer of 1912 Dawson found an ancient human skull in a gravel pit that was perhaps a million years old. He asked Arthur Smith Woodward and Father Pierre Tayyar to accompany him in his dig. While digging in the pit the three made discoveries of various fossils. Among their discoveries was a jaw bone thought to have been part of the same skull Dawson discovered. The jaw appeared to be that of an ape’s but its teeth resembled that of a human’s. This led them to believe they had discovered living organism that developed from an ape and evolved into a human. In December of 1912, Woodward announced their discoveries and scientists were extremely enthusiastic. They named the discovered fossil the Piltdown Man. Arthur Keith was among the enthusiastic scientists at this time because the Piltdown Man supported his theory that humans developed a big brain before gaining the ability to walk upright. We now know that statement is false. The ability to walk upright was developed before the development of a bigger brain. Over the following three years, Dawson, Woodward, and Tayyar made many more fossil discoveries hushing people’s suspicions. For the next decade, the model of the Piltdown Man dominated research on human evolution. Dawson’s death in 1916 brought a halt to anymore fossil discoveries contributing to the Piltdown Man. In 1920, scientists made discoveries of ancient remains in Asia and Africa. These remains were thought to have been human ancestors that lived hundreds of thousands of years after the Piltdown Man. That meant the new discoveries did not jive with the Piltdown Man.

The turning point was after World War II. Scientists came up with a technique to better date fossils; measuring the fluorine content. In 1949, scientists conducted the fluorine test on the Piltdown Man fossils and discovered they were roughly a hundred thousand years old, which was relatively young. In 1953, the first full scale analysis with better dating methods was developed. After running that analysis on the Piltdown fossils, it was concluded that the fossils had been artificially stained and the teeth seemed to have been filed down. This meant the fossils were probably cut and put together after they were fossilized. It was then discovered that the jaw bone belonged to a female orangutan and dated to less than one hundred years ago. All of this led scientists to believe the Piltdown Man was forged.

Naturally, Charles Dawson was the prime suspect for the hoax. The discoveries of the fossils for the Piltdown Man began with him and halted when he died. Arthur Woodward was either Dawson’s coconspirator or he was deceived because he continued his dig after Dawson’s death. Father Pierre Tayyar was never suspected to be a part of the hoax because he simply wasn’t involved long enough to have contributed. Arthur Keith however could have benefitted substantially from the Piltdown Man’s discovery because it provided him with principle evidence for his pet theory on human evolution.

Carved bones found in an old trunk at the Natural History Museum in 1975 were analyzed by scientists in 1996. The analysis concluded the bones were modern artifacts with stains consistent with those of the Piltdown Man’s. These artifacts belonged to Martin Hinton. This made scientists think Hinton could have taken part in the hoax or could’ve made them as an experiment while helping investigate the fraud in the 1950s.

All humans lie or cheat at some point in their life. No matter how small or large the lie, a lie is a lie. No matter how serious or playful the scenario, cheating is cheating. Scientists are human so they cannot be held at a different standard. Before the Piltdown Man Hoax, it was not believed that a scientist would commit such a serious fraud. But, this hoax showed scientists that the praise received from such ground breaking discoveries inflicts a great deal of pride and accomplishment. All scientists want to make amazing, historical discoveries. Not all of them are capable or have the resources necessary. This does not mean they should follow Charles Dawson’s footsteps and create a hoax but being human and having a craving for praise, they might.

The human factor should not be removed from scientific equation. As humans, we make mistakes, learn, and grow. If a scientist is proven to be wrong about something, colleagues should analyze the mistake, find a way to correct it, and share it so the scientist can learn from the mistake made. The support among scientists is a crucial tool that aids historic discoveries.

This historical event supported my current belief of confirming information. I don’t think it’s smart to be gullible. You should always find supporting fact for information given by others. Don’t think just because someone is nice or part of your family that they won’t lie. Everyone lies but not everyone is naïve.

Comparing Primates

LEMURS (POSIMIANS/STREPSIRHINI)

1.   ENVIRONMENT: Lemurs are petite prosimians that are native to the island of Madagascar and the Comoro Islands. They reside in rainforests and spend the majority of their time on tree tops or in the forest midlevel, with the exception of the ring-tailed lemur that spends most of its time on the ground. Madagascar’s harsh seasonal climate forces lemurs to adapt to survive. For example, they store fat, have strict mating seasons, and hibernate when food sources are scarce. Ring-tailed lemurs, brown lemurs, and sifakas live in groups, stay awake during the day, and sleep at night. Mouse lemurs, Aye-Aye lemurs and dwarf lemurs stay awake at night and sleep during the day.

2.   LOCOMOTION: Being quadrupedal, lemurs use all four limbs for locomotion. Their strong hand and fingers help them climb trees while their muscular legs are useful for jumping from tree to tree.

3.   ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCE ON LOCOMOTION: Since lemurs are located in the forest, they’re locomotor patterns have adapted rather well. They’ve developed sufficient arm and leg strength allowing them to climb and jump from tree to tree.

     SPIDER MONKEY (NEW WORLD MONKEY/PLATYRRHINI)

1.   ENVIRONMENT: Spider monkeys reside in tropical rainforests located in Central and South America and are sometimes seen in Mexico. Some species even live in Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Brazil. They’re most efficient in evergreen and mangrove forests. These monkeys live on the highest parts of trees and prefer not to be disturbed so they almost never come down.

2.   LOCOMOTION: Spider monkeys have very flexible and strong tails used as extra limbs to climb trees. They also have very long fore and hind limbs, hook-shaped hands, and extra mobility in their shoulder joints. Their three common locomotions are:

a)   Quadrupedal- Use all four limbs when walking or running.

b)   Suspensory- Swinging of their arms going one branch to another and maintaining a tail hold.

c)    Bipedalism- Use two limbs when leaping, walk and run on two legs, and travel mainly by swinging.

Other forms of movement are scurrying along tree limbs and taking leaps between small gaps between trees.

3.   ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCE ON LOCOMOTION: The spider monkeys strong tail is one of its most beneficial body parts when it comes to its environment. It allows them to gather food with two hands while hanging off its tail. Since they stay on high tree tops, their strong grip and locomotion abilities gives them access to obtaining bird eggs, nuts, leaves, and spiders.

BABOON (OLD WORLD MONKEY/CERCOPITHECIDAE)

1.   ENVIRONMENT: Living in Africa and Asia, Baboons prefer savannas and other semi-arid habitats. Very few baboons live in tropical forests. They spend most of their time on ground but sleep in tall trees or cliff faces.

2.   LOCOMOTION: Baboons are digitigrades quadrupedalists; they walk on their toes and don’t let their heels touch the ground. Spending most of their time on the ground they primarily only climb trees to avoid predators, find food, or sleep. They do not have the ability to grip things with their tails.

3.   ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCE ON LOCOMOTION: Since baboons spend most of their time on the ground, they walk on their digits (toes) so the soles of their feet don’t get damaged. Being on the ground so frequently also eliminates the need for them to develop a strong tail which New World Monkeys use to grip onto tree branches while collecting food. Baboons also have ischial callosities (rough areas on their buttocks) which allows them to sit for a long amount of time on the hard ground.

GIBBON (LESSER APE/HYLOBATIDAE)

1.   ENVIRONMENT: Gibbons reside in subtropical rainforests from Northeast India, Indonesia, and Southern China. Being arboreal animals, they spend almost no time on the ground, they move tree to tree by swinging their arms between branches.

2.   LOCOMOTION: Gibbons are brachiators; swing tree to tree in a hand over motion. Their long arms and curved fingers help them sing from tree to tree. They’re brachiating ability is so far developed that they can go as fast as 35mph.

3.   ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCE ON LOCOMOTION: Since gibbons live spend 99% of their time in trees; the adaption of their arms is the most helpful to them. Their arms are strong, elongated, and have curved fingers giving them exceptional grasping abilities for when they’re brachiating from tree to tree.

    CHIMPANZEE (GREAT APE/HOMINIDAE)

1.   ENVIRONMENT: Chimpanzees live in social areas located in African rainforests, grasslands, and woodlands. They are primarily vegetarians sometimes but the males sometimes eat insects, eggs, and meat.

2.   LOCOMOTION: Chimpanzees are quadrupedalists and they “knuckle walk”. They also show signs of bipedal locomotion by standing and walking up straight. Chimpanzees also have elongated arms used for brachiating when they’re swinging from tree to tree.

3.   ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCE ON LOCOMOTION: Having multiple locomotive abilities, chimpanzees can “knuckle walk” at a high speed to avoid predators and use their elongated arms to travel when brachiating. Their bipedal abilities also allow them to search for food and collect at the same time. 

SUMMARY

          Environmental circumstances greatly influence behavioral and physical traits. All five of the primates analyzed are all so alike. The main difference is their locomotion patterns. Their locomotion patterns are a direct correlation of the environment they live in. Arboreal environment ® brachiating is used as the main type of locomotion and the primates normally have elongated arms. Terrestrial environment® quadrupedal and the primate’s arms are proportioned to their legs. So, as you can see from the previous two sentences, the environment in which these five primates live in affect their physical traits. 

Analogy & Homology

Week 3 - Analogy & Homology Blog Post

1. For your homologus traits provide the following information (25pts):

a. Briefly describe the two different species that possess the homologus trait. (5 pts)

Humans and Cats both carry a homologous trait of possessing phalange bones.

b. Describe the homologus trait of each species, focusing on the differences in structure and function of the trait. Why do these homologus traits exhibit differences between the two species? Make sure your explanation is clear and complete. (10 pts)

Human phalanges are located in a person’s two hands and two feet. They are most commonly known as fingers and toes. Fingers are used for an infinite number of things varying from typing, to pushing buttons, to pinching, etc. Toes are a vital body part that assists a person by providing balance.

Cat phalanges are located in all four cat’s paws. They are most commonly known as toes. A cat’s two front paws have five toes while the two back paws have only four toes. Toes, like in humans, provide a balance assist a cat with balance along with grip and support (i.e. when they climb).

So, while the phalange bones in a human are essential for balance (toes) and manipulating other objects (fingers), the phalange bone in a cat is solely essential for balance (toes).

c. Who was (generally, not specifically) the common ancestor of these two species and how do you know that ancestor possessed this homologus trait? (5 pts)

Boreoeutherian is the common ancestor between cats and humans. 

d. Provide an image of each species in this comparison. (5 pts)

2. For your analogous traits provide the following information (25pts):

a. Briefly describe the two different species that possess the analogous trait. (5 pts)

Flies and birds have wings as an analogous trait.

b. Describe the analogous trait of each species, focusing on the similarities in structure and function of the trait. Clearly explain why these analogous traits exhibit similarities between the two species. (10 pts)

Flies have a pair of fully developed wings on the thorax and a second pair of wings that are used primarily for balance.

The main function of a bird wing is to propel the animal in flight so it can travel to wherever necessary and also provides warmth and protection for their offspring.

c. All pairs of organisms share some common ancestor if you go back far enough in time. Could the common ancestor of these two species have possessed this analogous trait? How do we know these traits are analogous and not genetically related from common descent? (5 pts)

Coelurosaurian theropods is the common ancestor of flies ad birds.

d. Provide an image of each species in this comparison.(5 pts)

      Bird Wing

Fly Wing

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